Theories about the origin of Nielloware in Thailand
In this section I will briefly review each of the theories that have been proposed to explain the origin of Nielloware in Thailand.
India
Several authors have suggested that Nielloware was introduced to Thailand by Indian merchants covering the commercial routes between India and China, routes which included Siam, in particular the port of Nakhon Si Thammmarat and other Southeast Asian ports as well. However, while authors such as Sa-ard and Prince Narisa mention the possibility of Indian influence they do not elaborate on details about the factors that may have been involved in the process. In contrast, Van Beek [31], indicates that there was Niello production in Thailand 'sometime before the 12th century', however, without offering any substantiating information.
It is apparent that there was a large amount of artistic and cultural Indian influence in Southeast Asia. Such influence started around the 1st century C.E. However, there are no reliable accounts on the manner and extent of the exchanges that took place at the time.[32] Hindu texts in Pallava script combined with archaeological evidence found in the region are the most reliable examples of Indian presence and perhaps influence in NST.
In the rich history of the Indian subcontinent there are records of a wide array of cultural exchanges between Mediterranean cultures and India. A telling example is the city of Taxila, which was controlled successively by the Achaemenians, Alexander The Great, Chandragupta, Bactrian Greeks, Ashoka, Parthians, Scythians, and Kushanas before the White Huns demolished the city. Indian literary and historic traditions indicate that jewelry has played an important role in the culture both because of its symbolic and monetary value. Thus, it should not be a surprise to learn about Indian jewelry items found in archaeological sites in Oc-eo, as it is quite possible that Indian merchants would bring with them such praised items. In addition, the minting of silver coins by Hindu Brahmins in NST may point at the introduction of certain silver working techniques to the kingdom by Indian settlers. Nevertheless, some scholars on Indian jewelry indicate that Niello does not appear to have been very popular in India. Moreover, it has been suggested that Niello is not indigenous to India.
The lack of archaeological or documentary evidence of early examples of Indian or Indian influenced Nielloware objects in Thailand or elsewhere in Southeast Asia, combined with the aforementioned facts about the low popularity of Niello in India do not permit to present a strong case in favor of this theory.
Portugal
Several authors argue that Nielloware arrived in Thailand with the Portuguese. After King Manoel of Portugal sent a mission to Ayutthaya in 1528), King Rammathibodi granted the Portuguese official permission to trade with four cities in the kingdom of Siam. Among those cities was included NST. Even today there are vestiges of Portuguese influence in Thailand in the form of bull-fights --still popular, in particular in southern Thailand--, in the tradition of having special markets that open only on certain days of the week; and also in the making of Portuguese inspired desserts, such as foi tong and tong yip. In spite of various scholars proposing that the Portuguese taught Thais how to make Nielloware, either in NST or Ayutthaya [33] there is no evidence for these claims. Perhaps the strongest refutation of this theory is in the Law of the Three Seals. During the reign of King Trai Lok Ka Nat (1448-1488) the Three Seals Law established that land-owners in the 10,000 rai order were entitled to ownership of specific types of Niello articles, such as a "black nielloware ceremonial pedestal and tray."[34] It is surmised that the law extended a privilege of the king and other high nobility to the qualifying owners of large extensions of land. As this law antedates the arrival of the first Portuguese envoys, it seems evident that Niello was already a valued craft that played a role as a symbol to underscore nobility in Siam well before the first decades of the sixteenth century. It is suggested by some authors that the interest in Nielloware may have resurfaced upon the arrival of the Portuguese, although there is no information that would corroborate this conjecture.
Rome
Although some objects of Roman origin have been found in Southeast Asia, there are no other indications of any time a direct or indirect contact between early Siamese kingdoms and Rome. However, there is a faint possibility of Niello arriving from Rome via India through the commercial routes between East and West. Nevertheless, the geographic distance and the absence of any other possible evidence make this option a difficult one to corroborate. Additionally, the temporal distance between these civilizations creates another obstacle in trying to assess this connection.
Greece
From the moment the Greek civilization started importing silver from the Iberian peninsula in the 7th century B.C. there is a development in Greek art forms, which presents a bi-directional transit of inspiration and influences in the techniques, decorations and uses of different art forms between the East and the West. [35] . Rawson indicates that there may have been Roman-Hellenic influences in Indian arts between the 2nd and 4th centuries AD.[36] Another author, Punjabhan, suggests that Nielloware arrived in Greece from the East. Punjabhan also maintains that no other country between Greece and Thailand presents evidence of Niello production.[37] However, as it is explained in the origin section there are quite a few examples of Niello in several countries between Greece and Thailand. Moreover, there is no evidence that supports the claim that Niello arrived in Thailand from Greece or vice versa. For our purposes, ascertaining a veritable link between Greece niello and Thailand, the impossibility of establishing an uninterrupted path of diffusion is insurmountable based on the data currently available.
Persia
The importance of Sassanian art is a matter of debate in art history circles. Niello does not seem to have been very popular in Sassanian Period (pre-Islamic Iran) silver objects, although there are a few pieces in which it was used. However, the shortage of Iranian metalwork between the 7th and the 11th centuries, makes it difficult to establish clear historical connections with other regions, Siam included [38] . Nevertheless, there are pieces of metalwork created during the Seljuk period, which present different types of niello as well as other types of metal inlays. Although professor Suthipitak mentions Iran in his account on the origin of Nielloware, he discounts the theory posited by Thai Prince Somdet Krom Phraya Damrong about Nielloware originating in Persia. On the contrary, Suthipitak suggests that Nielloware created in NST may have spread into India and Iran. Nevertheless, Suthipitak does not present any evidence that may support his claim.[39]
Southeast Asia
There seems to be a consensus on the role of Nakhon Si Thammarat as an important center for the production of niello not only in Thailand but also in the rest of the region as well. Richter [40] notes that Thai styles influenced Cambodian jewelry and also that there are niello elephant harness fittings that resemble southern Thai and Malay craftsmanship. In addition, Frasier-Lu notes that Burma and Malaysia may have received niello from Thailand.[41] Furthermore, another author indicates that Malay silversmiths learned niello in NST.[42] In addition, Richter [43] mentions of early 15th c. use of niello - or a similar substance -- in Palembang, West Sumatra. The same author offers two accounts about the possible origins of niello in the Malay Peninsula. First, that niello production in northern Malay states and Southern Thailand started in the 12th or 13th c., and second, that niello was made in Ligor by Malay war prisoners in the 19th c. The historic record about the Three Seals Law seems to disprove the latter while the lack of supporting evidence impedes the verification of the former. Unfortunately, the information available on this subject does not allow for a solid case in favor of any of the scenarios mentioned.
China
McElney[44] indicates that niello, although not very popular in China, may have arrived through contact with Arab and Western Asiatic peoples. He also mentions that the earliest pieces of niello in China appear during the Tang (618 - 907) dynasty (1998). Although there was contact between Siam and China the difference in materials and style between the niello objects produced in both places does not aid in trying to determine a clear link regarding niello.
Conclusion
The complexity of cultural exchange during commercial contact and also the fact that there have been several waves of cultural influence and cultural exchange through invasion, war, commerce and migrations in the NST area, make it very difficult to present a veritable theory about the possible arrival of Nielloware to Thailand. In the case of NST archaeological evidence shows that from an early time there was presence of foreign cultures in the area, not necessarily as settlers but perhaps as traders. The strongest evidence results form Indian cultural elements in the archaeological records, history and legend of the region. However, there is no substantial evidence that points directly to the arrival of Nielloware in NST from India. Furthemore, the fact Niello has not been historically very popular in India weakens the theory of diffusion.
